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Weigh in motion

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Weigh-in-motion or weighing-in-motion (WIM) devices are designed to capture and record the axle loads and gross vehicle weights as vehicles drive over a measurement site. Unlike static scales, WIM systems are capable of measuring vehicles traveling at a reduced or normal traffic speed and do not require the vehicle to come to a stop. This makes the weighing process more efficient.

Background

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Weigh-in-motion is a technology that can be used for various private and public purposes (i.e. applications) related to the weights and axle loads of road and rail vehicles. WIM systems are installed on the road or rail track or on a vehicle and measure, store and provide data from the traffic flow and/or the specific vehicle. For WIM systems certain specific conditions apply. These conditions have an impact on the quality and reliability of the data measured by the WIM system and of the durability of the sensors and WIM system itself.

WIM systems measure the dynamic axle loads of the vehicles and try to calculate the best possible estimate of the related static values. The WIM systems have to perform unattended, under harsh traffic and environmental conditions, often without any control over the way the vehicle is moving, or the driver is behaving. As a result of these specific measurement conditions, a successful implementation of a WIM system requires specific knowledge and experience.

The weight information consists of the gross vehicle weight and axle (group) loads combined with other parameters like: date and time, location, speed and vehicle class. For on-board WIM systems this pertains to the specific vehicle only. For in-road WIM systems this applies to the entire vehicle traffic flow.

This weight information provides the user with detailed knowledge of the loading of heavy goods vehicles.[1] This knowledge will replace the assumptions and estimates that had previously been used; as a result, margins of uncertainty are reduced. This means, for example, that the match between the heavy goods vehicles and the road/rail infrastructure can be optimized, [2](Moffatt, 2017).

Introduction

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Weighing-in-motion is generally defined as the process of measuring the dynamic tyre forces of a moving road vehicle (dynamic wheel loads) and estimating the gross vehicle weight (GVW) and the portion of that weight carried by each wheel, axle, and axle group of a corresponding static vehicle (static wheel and axle loads) www.is-wim.net. Besides measuring the gross vehicle weight, axle group loads, axle loads and often wheel loads of the passing vehicles, a WIM system will also determine other parameters related to the vehicle and its passage over the WIM system. This is combined in what is often referred to as the === ‘Vehicle Record’ ===, consisting of: • Unique record number; • Location of WIM system including the lane and direction of travel; • Date and Time of passage; • Vehicle speed; • Axle distances; • Wheel base and/or Vehicle length; • Vehicle classification.

Depending on the policy need and hence application, a WIM system may be combined with other sensors or devices, in such cases the vehicle record may be extended, for example with images of the vehicle. Independent of the sensing technology used there are several different ways to measure the gross vehicle weight, axle group loads and axle loads of a vehicle www.is-wim.net:

1. Static weighing

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Even though by definition not weighing in motion, the static weighing of road vehicles has an important relationship to WIM. The static weighing results are, in most cases, used as the reference values when testing and calibrating a WIM system. Static weighing systems are in many countries around the world legally approved for direct enforcement or trade applications, with a type approval certification according to the international OIML standards.

2. Low speed WIM (LS-WIM)

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Where the weighing takes place in a dedicated controlled area, mostly outside the main traffic lane, on a flat and smooth platform (generally made of concrete) that is longer than 30 m. In the weighing area the velocity and transverse movement of the passing vehicles are controlled in order to eliminate the dynamic effects of the vehicle. This ensures that the tyre impact forces are as close as possible to the static wheel loads. In many countries LS-WIM is legally approved for direct enforcement and trade, with a type approval issued according to the international OIML or similar national standards.

3. High speed WIM (HS-WIM)

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Here the weighing is carried out in the open traffic lanes at normal speed and under free flow conditions. The measurements are affected by the vehicle dynamics that depend on a combination of the geometry of the road, the driving behaviour of the driver and the reaction of the vehicle suspension on the influences mentioned previously. In general, good high speed WIM systems on smooth roads have an inaccuracy of between ±5 to ± 10 % for GVW measurements. More and less accurate systems are also available.

4. Bridge WIM (B-WIM)

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Is a special type of dynamic weighing system where the sensors are attached to the soffit (bottom side of beams or deck) of a bridge, viaduct or culvert. The sensors typically measure strains due to the bending of the bridge caused by the passing vehicles. In addition to the same vehicle information as provided by the pavement WIM systems, the B-WIM systems can also collect valuable data about bridge behaviour that can be used for safety assessment of the bridge.

5. Dynamic On-Board WIM (OBW)

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These systems are fitted to vehicles, rather than to the infrastructure. An OBW system will constantly measure the GVW, axle and wheel loads of the vehicle while it is moving. The typical measurement inaccuracy is between ±1 and ±3 %, depending on the sensing technology. The measured weight data of the moving vehicle may be combined with location (GPS) data and stored during the entire travel. Such combined OBW systems can be used to manage heavy vehicle operation and to monitor compliance to access to certain parts of the road network.

6. Stress-In-Motion (SIM) systems

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Are installed in the road pavement and are capable of measuring the individual multi-dimensional tire-road contact stresses (the tyre profile). SIM measurement is a relatively new development in WIM that offers applications in advanced pavement design, detailed vehicle classification, tire management and road safety.

7. Rail WIM systems

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Are installed on a railway track in order to measure the dynamic wheel forces and other characteristics of passing trains. Compared to Road-WIM, a Rail-WIM system will generally have better measurement accuracy, typically ±2 % for GVW. This is due to the more controlled weighing conditions and improved calibration possibilities.

WIM Systems

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In general, a complete WIM system includes a set of weighing sensors, either mounted in the pavement or attached to a bridge, and a road side unit containing all the electronics including data processing unit, data storage and communication devices. Depending on the application, various additional sensors may be added and linked to a WIM system, such as temperature and deflection sensors to compensate for the variation in the sensor response, or cameras for overview photos and license plate recognition for weight enforcement. WIM sensors come in a number of different forms such as strip, bar, scale or plate. All strip sensors are narrower than the tire imprint, and will acquire a measurement signal at least over the time the wheel or axle has a presence over them. Therefore, it is necessary to know the vehicle speed and to integrate the signal with time to get the wheel/axle force. The width of the scale/plate sensors in the traffic direction is greater than a wheel imprint and therefore it is capable of measuring the wheel impact force immediately. For both strip and scale WIM sensors, many different measurement technologies can be used.

Applications of WIM

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There are many applications for WIM systems and WIM data. Often the same WIM systems can be used for more than one application. Noting, the varied local, regional and national policy needs, the broad uses are www.is.wim.net:

1. Information on vehicle and traffic loading:

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This information provides an important input for transportation studies that help to optimize the planning and design of the future road network. The detailed and accurate loading information is an important input both for the design codes of the road infrastructure (new roads and bridges) and for the planning of the maintenance of the existing infrastructure. Additionally, the information from WIM systems can be used for detailed analysis of transport flows over the road network and its development over time. This information can also be used in providing evidence for Government policy. There are a myriad of specific applications within this group driven by policy needs. Infrastructure design, maintenance and use; transport analysis and planning; freight studies; economic and productivity studies; improved and more safe access arrangements.

2. Weight enforcement:

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The objective of weight enforcement is to achieve a better compliance with loading regulations and, as a consequence, a reduction of overloading and its negative effects; increased wear and tear of the road infrastructure, unfair competition and reduced safety. Low speed and high speed WIM systems offer a range of applications that will assist in a more efficient and effective weight enforcement. The applications described in this document are: road side controls, statistics and planning, pre-selection, company profiling and direct enforcement.

3. Tolling and Payment by weight:

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The road users pay a toll fee based on the actual weight and/ or axle loads of their vehicles. This is in line with the ‘polluter pays’ principle, since the height of the fee for using a toll road is proportional to the wear caused by the vehicle. The WIM systems not only ensure fair toll prices but may also generate additional revenue to finance maintenance of the infrastructure. This application includes the use of low speed WIM systems at the toll plazas and of high speed WIM under the free flow conditions.

4. Industrial applications:

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At ports, industrial and logistic centers. WIM systems can be used to check the weights and axle loads of trucks leaving the site, to prevent overloading before the trucks enter the road network. In case the WIM systems are certified for trade applications they can also be used for the invoicing of industrial (bulk) goods by weight.

5. Railway WIM:

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WIM systems installed in railway tracks may be used for one or a combination of the following applications: Rail track design and maintenance; by recording the total track loading a more efficient planning of rail track design and maintenance can be made; Train maintenance; in combination with a train identification system, the WIM can record the dynamic wheel loads of each train car. An early detection of high dynamics (e.g. because of flat spots) allows quick intervention for maintenance avoiding additional wear and tear of the train and track. Rail track access pricing; WIM can be used to monitor the access of trains to a railway track. This can be used for track access pricing related to the number and weights of the trains, the distance traveled on the rail network.

International cooperation and standards

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The International Society for Weigh-In-Motion (ISWIM), www.is-wim.net)

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Is a global non-profit organization, established in Switzerland in 2007, that connects and support individuals and organisations involved in the field of weigh-in-motion. The society brings together users, researchers, and vendors of WIM systems, including those used in road pavements, bridges, rail tracks and on board vehicles. ISWIM mission is to promote advancements in WIM technologies and widespread applications, focusing on strategic research areas of direct enforcement, WIM data assessment, and the application of WIM for roads, bridges, and road safety. To facilitate knowledge sharing, ISWIM organises periodically the International Conferences on WIM (ICWIM), regional seminars and workshops as part of other international conferences and exhibitions.

To support the community, ISWIM has developed a comprehensive WIM User Guide [3]. This guide aims to enhance understanding and effective application of WIM technology across various sectors.

In the 1990s, the first WIM standard ASTM-E1318-09[4] was published in North America, and the COST 323 action provided draft European specifications of WIM[5] as well as reports on Pan-European tests of WIM system. The European research project WAVE [6] and other initiatives delivered improved technologies and new methodologies of WIM. These first tests were done with the combination of WIM systems with video as a tool to assist overloading enforcement controls.[7]

In the early 2000s, the accuracy and reliability of WIM systems were significantly improved, and they were used more frequently for overload screening and pre-selection for road side weight enforcement controls (virtual weigh stations). The OIML R134 [8] was published as an international standard of low speed WIM systems for legal applications like tolling by weight and direct weight enforcement. Most recently, the NMi-WIM standard [9] offers a basis for the introduction of high speed WIM systems for direct automatic enforcement and free flow tolling by weight.

Road applications

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Weigh in motion location on the A28 motorway (Netherlands)
Axle load sensor

Especially for trucks, gross vehicle and axle weight monitoring is useful in an array of applications including:

  • Pavement design, monitoring, and research
  • Bridge design, monitoring, and research
  • To inform weight overload enforcement policies and to directly facilitate enforcement[10][11]
  • Planning and freight movement studies
  • Toll by weight
  • Data to facilitate legislation and regulation

The most common road application of WIM data is probably pavement design and assessment. In the United States, a histogram of WIM data is used for this purpose. In the absence of WIM data, default histograms are available. Pavements are damaged through a mechanistic-empirical fatigue process[12] that is commonly simplified as the fourth power law. In its original form, the fourth power law states that the rate of pavement damage is proportional to axle weight raised to the fourth power. WIM data provides information on the numbers of axles in each significant weight category which allows these kinds of calculations to be carried out.[citation needed]

Weigh in motion scales are often used to facilitate weight overload enforcement, such as the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration's Commercial Vehicle Information Systems and Networks program. Weigh-in-motion systems can be used as part of traditional roadside inspection stations, or as part of virtual inspection stations.[13] In most countries, WIM systems are not considered sufficiently accurate for direct enforcement of overloaded vehicles but this may change in the future.[14]

The most common bridge application of WIM is the assessment of traffic loading. The intensity of traffic on a bridge varies greatly as some roads are much busier than others. For bridges that have deteriorated, this is important as a less heavily trafficked bridge is safer and more heavily trafficked bridges should be prioritized for maintenance and repair. A great deal of research has been carried out on the subject of traffic loading on bridges, both short-span,[15][16][17] including an allowance for dynamics,[18][19][20] and long-span.[21][22][23]

Recent years have seen the rise of several "specialty" Weigh-in-Motion systems. One popular example is the front fork garbage truck scale. In this application, a container is weighed—while it is full—as the driver lifts, and again—while it is empty—as the container is returned to the ground. The difference between the full and empty weights is equal to the weight of the contents.[citation needed]

Use

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Countries using Weigh in motion on highways include:

Accuracy

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The accuracy of weigh-in-motion data is generally much less than for static weigh scales where the environment is better controlled. The European COST 323[39] group developed an accuracy classification framework in the 1990s.[5] They also coordinated three independently controlled road tests of commercially available and prototype WIM systems, one in Switzerland,[40] one in France (Continental Motorway Test) and one in Northern Sweden (Cold Environment Test).[41] Better accuracy can be achieved with multiple-sensor WIM systems[42] and careful compensation for the effects of temperature. The Federal Highway Administration in the United States has published quality assurance criteria for WIM systems[43] whose data is included in the Long Term Pavement Performance project.

System basics of most systems

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Sensors

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WIM systems can employ various types of sensors for measurement.

The earliest WIM systems, still used in a minority of installations, use an instrumented existing bridge as the weighing platform.[44][45] Bending plates span a void cut into the pavement and use the flexure as the wheel passes over as a measure of weight. Load cells use strain sensors in the corner supports of a large platform embedded in the road.[46]

The majority of systems today are strip sensors - pressure sensitive materials installed in a 2 to 3 cm groove cut into the road pavement. In strip sensors, various sensing materials are used, including piezo-polymer, piezo-ceramic, capacitive and piezo-quartz. Many of these sensing systems are temperature-dependent and algorithms are used to correct for this.[46]

Strain transducers are used in bridge WIM systems. Strain gauges are used to measure the flexure in bending plates and the deformation in load cells. The strip sensor systems use piezo-electric materials in the groove.

Capacitive systems measure the capacitance between two closely placed charged plates.[47]

More recently, weighing sensors using optical fiber grating sensors have been proposed.[48][49][50]

Charge amplifiers

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High impedance charge signals are amplified with MOSFET based charge amplifiers and converted to a voltage output, which is connected to analysis system.[citation needed]

Inductive loops

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Inductive loops define the vehicle entry and exit from the WIM station. These signals are used as triggering inputs to start and stop the measurement to initiate totaling gross vehicle weight of each vehicle. They also measure total vehicle length and help with vehicle classification. For toll gate or low speed applications, inductive loops may be replaced by other types of vehicle sensors such as light curtains, axle sensors or piezocables.[citation needed]

Measurement system

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The high speed measurement system is programmed to perform calculations of the following parameters:[citation needed]

Axle distances, individual axle weights, gross vehicle weight, vehicle speed, distance between vehicles, and the GPS synchronized time stamp for each vehicle measurement.

The measurement system should be environmentally protected, should have a wide operating temperature range and withstand condensation.

Registration plate reading

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Cameras for automatic number-plate recognition may be part of the system to check the measured weight against maximum allowable weight for the vehicle and, in case of exceeded limits, inform law enforcement in order to pursue the vehicle or to directly fine the owner.[51]

Communications

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Variety of communication methods need to be installed on the measurement system. A modem or cellular modem can be provided. In older installations or where no communication infrastructure exists, WIM systems can be self-operating while saving the data, to later physically retrieve it.[citation needed]

Data archiving

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A WIM system connected with any available communication means can be connected to a central monitoring server. Automatic data archiving software is required to retrieve the data from many remote WIM stations to be available for any further processing. A central database can be built to link many WIMs to a server for a variety of monitoring and enforcement purposes.[citation needed]

Rail applications

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Weighing in motion is also a common application in rail transport. Known applications are[52]

  • Asset protection (imbalances, overloading)
  • Asset management
  • Maintenance planning
  • Legislation and regulation
  • Administration and planning

System basics

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There are two main parts to the measurement system: the track-side component, which contains hardware for communication, power, computation, and data acquisition, and the rail-mounted component, which consists of sensors and cabling. Known sensor principles include:

  • strain gauges: measuring the strain usually in the hub of the rail[53]
  • fiber optical sensors: measuring a change of light intensity caused by the bending of the rail[54]
  • load cells: Measuring the strain change in the load cell rather than directly on the rail itself.
  • laser based systems: measuring the displacement of the rail

Yards and main line

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Trains are weighed, either on the main line or at yards.[citation needed] Weighing in Motion systems installed on the main lines measure the complete weight (distribution) of the trains as they pass by at the designated line speed. Weighing in motion on the mainline is therefore also referred to as "coupled-in-motion weighing": all of the railcars are coupled.[citation needed] Weighing in motion at yards often measure individual wagons. It requires that the railcar are uncoupled on both ends in order to weigh. Weighing in motion at yards is therefore also referred to as "uncoupled-in-motion weighing". Systems installed at yards usually works at lower speeds and are capable of higher accuracies.[citation needed]

Airport applications

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Some airports use airplane weighing, whereby the plane taxis across the scale bed, and its weight is measured.[55] The weight may then be used to correlate with the pilot's log entry, to ensure there is just enough fuel, with a little margin for safety. This has been used for some time to conserve jet fuel.[citation needed]

Also, the main difference in these platforms, which are basically a "transmission of weight" application, there are checkweighers, also known as dynamic scales or in-motion scales.[citation needed]

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